EARLY HISTORY563 B.C. (Birth of Buddha) The Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) was born in Lumbini, located in the Tarai district of Kapilvastu, which was then ruled by the Sakya (Shakya) dynasty. Siddhartha was a Sakya prince.

Before 400 A.D. Various pastoral dynasties ruled Nepal which included the Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding areas. The Valley was later ruled by the Kirata dynasty, founded by Yellung Kirata from the eastern hills. The Kirata dynasty’s rule spanned at least 1,500 years, until it was dislodged in 400 A.D. by what came to be known as the Licchavi period.

 

THE LICCHAVI RULE

400–879 With the inception of the Licchavi period, Nepal slowly moved onto the terra firma of history. This period is often regarded as the “Golden Age” in Nepali history. The era began with the rule of Vrasadeva (400– 425) and concluded with Mandeva IV (875–879). Raghavadeva, whose rule began in 879, seemed to be the transitional ruler separating the end of the Licchavi period and the advent of the Medieval period.

 

THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

879–1200 Advent of the Medieval period ushered in a dark phase in the history of Nepal as the country was completely shrouded in chaos and confusion. The eclipse cast by the Medieval period lasted for more than 300 years until the onset of the Malla regime with the rule of Ari Malla (Arimalla) in 1200 A.D.

 

THE MALLA RULE

1200–1482 (The Early Malla Period) This was the period when the Kathmandu Valley was maintained and ruled as one kingdom. While this phase of the Malla rule continued to expand the foundation built during the Licchavi period, the kingdom embarked on a self-destructive course following the death of Jayasthiti Malla in 1395.

1200–1216 Reign of Ari Malla (Arimalla), the founder of the Malla period.

1345–1346 Sultan Shams ud-din Ilyas of Bengal raided Kathmandu.

1382–1395 Reign of Jayasthiti Malla, perhaps the most farsighted of all the Malla rulers, who was responsible for instituting many social codes, including the classification of castes and subcastes. The lasting impact of his social and institutional codes is still felt in many aspects of social life in Nepal.

1428–1482 Reign of Yaksha Malla, the last Malla ruler of the unified Malla kingdom of the Kathmandu Valley.

1482–1769 (Breakup of the Malla Kingdom) Following the death of Yaksha Malla in 1482, the Malla Kingdom of the Kathmandu Valley was split into three separate kingdoms of Kathmandu, Bhadgaun (Bhaktapur), and Patan (Lalitpur). This division signaled the breakdown and eventual downfall of the Malla rule.

1559 Gorkha principality established in the central hills.

1743 Prithvi Narayan Shah was crowned king of Gorkha. Soon after his coronation, Prithvi Narayan embarked on a long military campaign of territorial conquests, consolidation, and national unification.

1769 Prithvi Narayan Shah completed the conquest of all three Malla kingdoms, setting the stage for the unification of fragmented Nepal. The city of Kathmandu was declared the capital of the new Nepal. He was also the founder of the Shah dynasty.

 

THE EARLY SHAH RULE

1769–1846 (The Shah Period) With the unification of Nepal began what can be loosely described as the country’s Modern period. Many events took place during this period.

1769–1816 Continued territorial expansion and annexation.

1770–1775 Restriction on trade with Tibet and dispute over the circulation of Nepal-minted coins in Tibet.

1775 Death of King Prithvi Narayan Shah; Treaty between Nepal and Tibet.

1775–1777 Reign of King Pratap Singh Shah.

1777–1799 Reign of King Rana Bahadur Shah after King Pratap’s death.

1788 First Nepal-Tibet War.

1789 Nepal-Tibet Treaty.

1791 Second Nepal-Tibet War.

1792 Treaty of Commerce between Nepal and the East India Company; China-Nepal War.

1793 The Kirkpatrick Mission to Kathmandu.

1799 Abdication of Rana Bahadur Shah and accession of his infant son, King Girvana Yuddha Bikram, at the age of one and a half. Following that event, Rana Bahadur went to live in Varanasi, India, a place often considered to be a Hindu sanctuary.1799–1816 Reign of King Girvana Yuddha Bikram Shah.

1801 Treaty with the East India Company’s government.

1803 Amar Singh Thapa led Nepal’s westward expansion, pushing its boundary all the way to the Satlej (Sutlej) River in India.

1804 The 1801 treaty with the East India Company nullified.

1806–1837 Bhimsen (Bhim Sen) Thapa took office as Mukhtiyar (prime minister) and held it until 1837.

1814–1816 War with the British in India (Anglo-Nepal War).

1816 The Treaty of Sagauli (Sugauli) ratified in March. As part of the treaty, Nepal ceded roughly one-half of its territory to British India.

1816–1847 Reign of King Rajendra Bikram following King Girvana Yuddha’s death.

1837 Dismissal of Mukhtiyar General Bhimsen Thapa.

1839 Rearrest and most gruesome death of Bhimsen Thapa.

1845 Mathbar Singh Thapa was appointed prime minister for life in January. A few months later in May, he was assassinated by his own nephew Jang Bahadur Kunwar.

1846 (Kot Parba) Nepal witnessed its bloodiest courtyard massacre in which 29 leading bhardars (court nobles) were slaughtered by Jang Bahadur Kunwar and his brothers. After the massacre, Jang became prime minister and commander in chief.

 

THE RANA RULE

1846–1951 The sudden rise of Jang Bahadur Kunwar in 1846 began what a few years later came to be known as the Rana rule, rooted in hereditary and autocratic prime ministership. As Rana prime ministers usurped power, they turned the Shah kings into figurehead with little authority or power.

1846–1877 Rule of Prime Minister Jang Bahadur Rana.

1846 King Rajendra was compelled by Crown Prince Surendra to vacate the throne, and then went to Varanasi, India, with his junior queen and two sons.

1847–1881 Occupation of the throne by King Surendra Shah.

1847 In July, ex-King Rajendra was brought back to the country but kept under house arrest until his death in July 1881.

1850–1851 Prime Minister Jang Bahadur Kunwar traveled to Britain and other European countries. He departed from Calcutta, India, in April 1850 and returned to Nepal in February 1851. Such a trip by a prime minister was unprecedented in Nepal’s history.

1854 Promulgation of the Muluki Ain (administrative procedures, legal frameworks, or national civil codes regarding various matters) by Prime Minister Jang Bahadur Kunwar.

1857 Prime Minister Jang Bahadur Kunwar led a Nepali battalion to India to help the East India Company suppress the Sepoy Mutiny. His support proved critical for British victory and continued rule of India.

1858 King Surendra bestowed upon Jang Bahadur Kunwar the honorific title of “Rana,” an old title used in northern India to denote martial glory. As a result, Jang Bahadur removed his surname “Kunwar” and replaced it with “Rana,” thus initiating the Rana clan and premiership in Nepal.

1877–1885 Rule of Prime Minister Ranoddip Singh Rana.

1878 Death of Crown Prince Trailokya Bikram Shah and the devolution of his royal rights to his infant son Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah.

1881–1911 At the age of six, Prithvi Bir Bikram was crowned king upon his grandfather’s death.1885–1901 Rule of Prime Minister Bir Shamsher Rana, following the assassination of Prime Minister Ranoddip Singh.

1901 Rule of Prime Minister Dev Shamsher Rana, following the death of Bir Shamsher. In a month, Dev Shamsher was deposed from his office in a bloodless coup and was replaced by Chandra Shamsher.

1901–1929 Rule of Chandra Shamsher Rana.

1911–1955 Tribhuvan Bir Bikram ascended to the throne after King Prithvi Bir Bikram’s death.

1914–1918 (World War I) More than 200,000 Gorkha (Gurkha) soldiers placed at the disposal of the British Empire. In addition, almost 17,000 Nepali soldiers sent to India for garrison duties.

1918 Tri-Chandra College founded, the first college in the nation.

1923 A new treaty signed with British India.

1924 Slavery (das pratha) abolished by Chandra Shamsher.

1929–1932 Rule of Prime Minister Bhim Shamsher Rana, following the death of Chandra Shamsher Rana.

1932–1945 Rule of Prime Minister Juddha Shamsher Rana, following the death of Bhim Shamsher Rana.

1934 A massive earthquake caused enormous damage in Kathmandu.

1936 Nepal Praja Parishad—or Praja Parishad (People’s Council)—was founded under the leadership of Tanka Prasad Acharya. It was the first political party in Nepal, created to overthrow Rana autocracy and establish democracy. In Bihar, India, the party published a periodical called Janata (The People) to promote its political position and policy, advocating a multicaste, democratic government and the overthrow of the Ranas.

1939–1945 (World War II) Once again, Nepal’s hill villages sent forth their young lads to fight and die for the British Empire. Over 160,000 recruited. Altogether more than 24,000 were killed and 40,000 incapacitated while serving the imperial cause of the global British army.

1940 Arrest of 43 Nepal Praja Parishad leaders and workers for plotting to dismantle the Rana rule. King Tribhuvan was found to be involved in the plot.

1941 Of the 43 arrested in 1940, three of the primary leaders were given capital punishment and executed. 24 January: On the order of Prime Minister Juddha Shamsher, Dharma Bhakta Mathema, who gave King Tribhuvan lessons in wrestling, was hanged to death. Also hanged on the same day was Shukra Raj Shastri, an anti-Rana activist who had been jailed since 1938. 27 January: Three days later, Juddha Shamsher had Dasarath Chand and Ganga Lal Shrestha executed by shooting. These four executed leaders are recognized as shahid (martyrs). Every year, Nepal celebrates Shahid Dibas (Martyrs’ Day).

1945 Return of the last nine units of the Nepali troops to Kathmandu.

1945–1948 Padma Shamsher Rana’s climb to prime ministership, when Juddha Shamsher voluntarily relinquished his office.

1947 24 January: All-India Nepali National Congress set up by Nepali political exiles and Nepalis domiciled in Varanasi and Darjeeling, India. 4–27 March: Jute mill workers’ strike at Biratnagar and arrest of several leaders, including Bishweswar Prasad (B. P.) Koirala and Man Mohan Adhikari. 25 April: A friendship and commerce agreement signed with the United States. 30 April–4 May: Mass anti-Rana demonstration and processions in the Kathmandu Valley. 11 July: The status of British and Nepali legations in London and Kathmandu elevated to embassies. 15 August: Independence of India. The end of the British Raj proved to be a deadly blow to the Rana rule as it fell four years later.

1948–1951 Rule of Prime Minister Mohan Shamsher Rana, following Padma Shamsher’s resignation.

1949 22 April: The Communist Party of Nepal (CPN) was established, with Puspa Lal Shrestha leading it as its founding general secretary. 1 May: Mohan Shamsher imprisoned B. P. Koirala who went on a 27-day hunger strike (annasan).

1950 (Setting the Stage for Rana Demise) 9 April: The Nepali Congress Party born out of a merger between Nepali National Congress and Nepal Democratic Congress parties. 31 July: Treaties of Peace and Friendship and of Trade and Commerce signed with India. 24 September: Arrest of Nepali Congress armed volunteers. 6 November: King Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah, who fled the palace with his queens and Crown Prince Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah, sought asylum in the Indian Embassy in Kath-mandu. But his younger son, Prince Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah, happened to be left behind. 7 November: Prince Gyanendra was crowned king. 11 November: The Indian Embassy flew King Tribhuvan and his family to Delhi on two Indian Air Force planes. 11 November: Birganj, a key gateway town along the Nepal-India border, captured by Nepali Congress armed freedom fighters. 24 December: Prime Minister Mohan Shamsher unilaterally proposed his own internal reforms.

 

RETURN OF THE SHAH RULE

1951 During this year several key events occurred, culminating in the demise of the Rana rule and the revival of the Shah rule. 8 January: Prime Minister Mohan Shamsher Rana announced more reforms and reversed Prince Gyanendra’s succession to the throne. 10 January: In India, self-exiled King Tribhuvan welcomed Mohan Shamsher’s reversal of Prince Gyanendra’s illegitimate crowning. 7 February: Agreement known as “Delhi compromise” was reached to form a joint government with equal representation from the Rana and Nepali Congress sides, with Mohan Shamsher as prime minister. B. P. Koirala appointed as home minister (security and defense portfolio). 15–17 June: Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru’s visit to Nepal. 6 November: Police firing killed Chiniya Kaji, a student protester. 10 November: Following Chiniya Kaji’s death, Home Minister Koirala tendered his resignation, along with his Congress ministers, thus undercutting the Ranas’ tenuous hold on the government. 12 November: Prime Minister Mohan Shamsher and his Rana cabinet members resigned, thereby handing the power to the king to appoint a new government. 16 November: Tribhuvan selected Matrika Prasad Koirala as prime minister and appointed a new non-Rana government, thus bringing finality to the end of the Rana rule.

1952 March: First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt of the United States visited Nepal during a world tour. June: The U.S. Information Service opened a library called the American Library in Kathmandu.

1953 Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay became the first two climbers to ever reach the summit Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) on 29 May.

1954 June: U.S. Ambassador George Allen visited Nepal. During the summer monsoon season, Nepal experienced a series of devastating floods and landslides as a result of torrential rains that lasted several days. The natural disaster caused enormous damage in the central hills as houses were swept away, properties destroyed, and farm land lost. Approximately 1,000 people were killed, over 130,000 rendered homeless, and domestic animals washed away. October: The U.S. Operations Missions (USOM) in Nepal signed an agreement to assist in reconstruction.

1955–1972 Reign of King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah. After the death of King Tribhuvan on 13 March 1955, Mahendra was crowned king.

1956 USOM announced in February a $2 million grant of economic aid to Nepal, focused on malaria eradication, community development (land reclamation and settlement), and road construction in the Rapti Valley of the central Tarai district of Chitwan. That is, the Tarai frontier in Chitwan was opened for hill migrants to move in, reclaim land, and resettle in the area. Known as the Rapti Valley Development Project (RVDP), it was Nepal’s first systematically planned Tarai land settlement and agricultural development project—all designed to rehabilitate the hill victims of the 1954 natural disaster.

1957 King Mahendra announced in December his plan to hold elections on 18 February 1959 to form a parliamentary government.

1958 Election Commission constituted in May.

1959 12 February: Announcement of the new constitution accepting a parliamentary government but vesting the Crown with sovereign authority over all three branches: executive, judicial, and legislative, including the army. 18 February: National parliamentary elections got underway. 3 April: National elections completed. 10 May: Announcement of national election results. Nepali Congress led by B. P. Koirala won 74 out of 109 seats in the House of Representatives. 27 May (Dawn of Democracy in Nepal): Formation of the first nationally elected democratic government headed by Nepali Congress. Its leader B. P. Koirala became the first elected prime minister of Nepal.

1960 (Palace Coup, Revival of the Absolute Shah Rule, and Infanticide of Democracy) King Mahendra launched a palace coup on 15 December against Prime Minister Koirala’s infant government. He jailed Koirala, along with many party leaders and prematurely aborted nascent democracy. Mahendra usurped all the power and restored his direct rule.

1962 King Mahendra promulgated on 16 December a new constitution and formalized a four-tier Panchayat system. Even though it was heralded as partyless, Panchayat was essentially a one-party political system grafted to bolster Mahendra’s absolute rule and wishes.

1972 King Mahendra died in January during a hunting trip to Chitwan in the central Tarai. His son Birendra Bir Bikram Shah succeeded him.

1972–1990 King Birendra’s absolute rule between 1972 and 1990.

1979 In early 1979, nationwide pro-democracy agitation and protests against the Panchayat system. As the protest movement heated up and spread, it posed a serious threat to the system. In response, the king announced on 24 May that he would hold a national referendum on Panchayat within a year.

1980 The national referendum was held on 2 May, and the king and Panchayat declared victorious in a referendum which was believed to have been rigged. As a result of the referendum, Panchayat gained a semblance of popular legitimacy. Subsequently, some cosmetic amendments to the constitution were made in December.

1981 Elections to the National Panchayat held in May. Political parties rejected the amended constitution and boycotted the elections.1982 B. P. Koirala passed away on 21 July.

1983 Founding of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) on 2 August, during the Delhi meeting of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. However, it took four years before the association was inaugurated on 7 December 1986, at its Dhaka meeting. Established to promote regional cooperation and growth, SAARC is headquartered in Kathmandu.

1986 Second elections held to the National Panchayat. Again, Nepali Congress and most other parties boycotted the elections.

1989 India imposed an economic embargo on Nepal in March, with the declaration of the expiry of the trade and transit treaties between the two countries and closing of all but two border entry points. Nepal suffered a debilitating blow as its economic conditions deteriorated, particularly in the Kathmandu Valley. In fact, it proved to be a prelude to the downfall of the Panchayat system.

 

DEMOCRACY AND CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY

1990 (Second Coming of Democracy, End of the Panchayat System, and Constitutional Monarchy) Though seemingly legitimized by the referendum, Panchayat’s longevity was never secure due to its internal decay and dysfunctionality. A new pro-democracy movement ensued to disarm the Panchayat system. The movement unfolded as follows: 15 January: Six different factions of the Communist Party of Nepal joined together to form a united front: United Left Front (ULF). 18–20 January: Defying its banned status, the Nepali Congress Party (NCP) held a national conference within the country and announced 18 February as the launching date of its nonviolent, pro-democracy movement against Panchayat. ULF decided to join NCP to fulfill the mission of the movement. 18 February: As planned, NCP and ULF jointly launched the pro-democracy movement known as the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy. 19 February: The Movement organized nonviolent protests, including a national call for Nepal Band (Nepal shutdown, i.e., closing shops, grounding transportation, and so forth). In Bhaktapur, police fired on protesters, causing some deaths and many injuries. 24 February: A protest at Bir Hospital by several hundred nurses and health workers. 25 February: Black day observed in Kathmandu and other cities. Later, the Nepal Engineering and Medical associations issued statements of support. 2 March: Successful second Nepal Band throughout the country, followed by various other types of protests and anti-Panchayat statements from several professional groups. 14 March: Third successful Nepal Band observed across the country, and other forms of protests continued. Students, intellectuals, shopkeepers, professionals, workers, and masses of other people swelled the ranks of protesters. 16 March: Government-organized pro-Panchayat rally in Pokhara. King Birendra addressed the crowd and took a defiant stance against the Movement. 23 March: National People’s Unity Day observed. 29 March: Planned-blackout in the Kathmandu Valley as people turned off their electricity as a form of protest. 30 March: Some people killed and many injured by police firings in Patan. 4 April: Massive demonstrations in the Valley. Police firing killed some demonstrators in Kirtipur. 6 April: King Birendra removed Prime Minister Marich Man Shrestha and appointed Lokendra Bahadur Chand prime minister with a promise to reform. His seemingly palliative move and promise of reforms failed to sway the Movement as the people had lost faith. Thousands of protesters filled the streets and marched toward the palace, chanting anti-Panchayat and anti-king slogans. Police fired, killing some and injuring many. That was the largest demonstration that Kathmandu had ever witnessed in its political history. In a separate police firing in Butwal, there were some fatal casualties. 7 April: Continued police brutality and killing provoked more and larger demonstrations across the nation. 8 April: The shaken king lifted the ban on all political parties. 16 April (End of the Panchayat System): Prime Minister Lokendra Chand resigned. King Birendra dissolved the National Panchayat, thus sounding Panchayat’s death knell. 19 April (Revival of Parliamentary Democracy): King Birendra grudgingly called on Krishna Prasad Bhattarai, a senior NCP and Movement leader, to form an interim coalition government to draft a new constitution and to hold national parliamentary elections. 11 May: Birendra appointed a Constitution Commission without consulting with the interim government, thus revealing his deep-seated aversion toward the Movement for eroding his absolute monarchy. But this commission was rejected. 31 May: Birendra was compelled to consult with the interim government and announced the formation of another Constitution Commission. 10 September: First draft of the new constitution submitted to the king, who forwarded it to the interim cabinet. 11 October: The cabinet finalized the constitution and submitted it to Birendra for his review and approval. 21 October: In a stunningly insidious and defiant move—that revealed, once again, his continued resistance to democracy—King Birendra shelved the constitution finalized by the cabinet. In its place, he released his own draft vastly different from the one the cabinet had submitted. The king was publicly criticized for his open attempt to thwart the people’s will with his anti-democratic moves and his obvious motive behind them. 5 November: However, the cabinet did incorporate some features of the palace draft into its final draft and resubmitted the revised constitution. 11 November (End of the Absolute Shah Rule and the Emergence of Constitutional Monarchy): Birendra promulgated a new constitution which constitutionalized the Crown and legitimized a multiparty democratic system.

1991 8 January: With the elections looming on the horizon, the United Left Front (ULF) and another communist faction merged to create a new Communist Party of Nepal called Unified Marxist-Leninist (CPN–UML), thus becoming the largest communist faction and a formidable electoral force. 5 May: Elections held. Nepali Congress won the majority of the contested parliamentary seats. 29 May: Nepali Congress formed the government with Girija Prasad Koirala as prime minister. This was the second elected government in Nepali history.

1994 10 July: Prime Minister Koirala resigned after losing the vote of confidence. With the Parliament dissolved, the date was set for new elections. 15 November: Elections held and no party won a clear majority. The Communist Party of Nepal–Unified Marxist-Leninist won the plurality of seats and NCP came second. 29 November (First Communist Government in Nepal): CPN–UML managed to form a minority government led by Man Mohan Adhikari, the second popularly elected Marxist government in the world.

1995 March: U.S. First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton went to Nepal on a three-day visit. During her visit, she toured various health and education service organizations and Chitwan’s national park and wildlife reserve. 10 September: Prime Minister Man Mohan Adhikari’s minority government collapsed. 11 September: A coalition government of NCP, National Democratic Party (NDP), and Nepal Sadbhavana Party (NSP) led by NCP leader Sher Bahadur Deuba was formed.

1996 13 February: “People’s War” declared by the Maoist faction of the Communist Party of Nepal (CPN–Maoist), led by Puspa Kamal Dahal (alias Prachanda), Baburam Bhattarai, and Mohan Vaidya (alias Kiran). A nationwide guerilla revolution was launched from their power base in the western hills (namely around the districts of Pyuthan, Rolpa, Rukum, and Salyan). It is pertinent to point out that it is the very region where, since the early 1980s, the American government agency called the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has implemented the biggest integrated rural development project in Nepal’s economic history. Commonly known as the People’s War, the ongoing revolution spread throughout the country.

1997 6 March: The Deuba government dissolved. 10 March: A new coalition government of NDP, CPN–UML, and NSP formed under NDP leader Lokendra Bahadur Chand. 8 September: Death of Ganesh Man Singh, NCP’s supreme leader and the national statesman. 3 October: The Chand government fell. 6 October: A new three-party coalition government of NDP, NCP, and NSP constituted with another NDP leader Surya Bahadur Thapa as prime minister.

1998 (The Endless Game of Governmental Shuffle) 11 April: Prime Minister Thapa resigned. 12 April: Girija Koirala formed a minority NCP government. 21 December: Prime Minister Koirala resigned, but managed to form a new coalition government with CPN–UML and NSP two days later on 23 December.

1999 (Fresh General Elections) 26 April: Death of CPN–UML leader and former Prime Minister Man Mohan Adhikari. 3, 5 May: Third parliamentary elections were held in two phases. NCP won the majority of seats in the House of Representatives—111 out of 205—whereas CPN–UML won 71 seats. 31 May: Headed by Krishna Prasad Bhattarai as prime minister, NCP formed a new government.

2000 18 March: Prime Minister Bhattarai was ousted by his own party member and former Prime Minister Girija Koirala who replaced him.

2001 (Palace Massacre, More Governmental Shuffle, and the Year of Chaos and Volatility) 1 June: In a bizarre and bloody palace massacre, King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah and his immediate family members were gunned down by Crown Prince Dipendra Bir Bikram Shah, who is believed to have later shot himself. Dipendra was placed on life support. 2 June: Dying Dipendra was declared king. 4 June: King Dipendra pronounced dead. With no heirs surviving from Birendra’s lineage, Dipendra’s uncle Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah (Birendra’s brother) was crowned king. 22 July: Ongoing internal power struggles within NCP drove Prime Minister Koirala out of power. He was replaced by another NCP leader and former Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba, who espoused a plan to hold negotiations with the Maoists in order to end the People’s War that had already cost hundreds of lives across the nation. 23 November: Following the breakdown of peace talks with the Deuba government, Maoists ended a four-month-old cease-fire with a wave of attacks on police posts and army barracks. The attacks continued. Scores of police and army personnel were killed. It was also reported that the army had killed several hundred Maoist fighters during its assaults on them. 26 November (State of Emergency Declared): In response to growing Maoist actions across the country, King Gyanendra declared a state of emergency, thus suspending decade-old and hard-won civil liberties, including freedom of the press as well as freedom of assembly, expression, and movement. Nepal’s nascent democratic experi-ment was, once again, severely strained in the name of weeding out the Maoist movement which controlled almost 30 percent of the national territory.

2002 (Continued Conflicts between the Nepali Army and the Maoist Forces, Swelling Death Tolls, and Political Uncertainties) 4 January: SAARC meeting held in Nepal. 17 January: The government announced new taxes on industrial products and additional import-export duties to fund military offensive against the Maoists. 18 January: U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell’s visit to Nepal. In addition to holding talks with the king and prime minister, Powell was briefed by the army chief on the military offensive against the Maoists. Subsequent to his visit, American military advisors/personnel were sent to Nepal to advise and train Nepal’s armed forces in their fight against the Maoists. 16–17 February: At midnight, Maoist rebels launched the deadliest ever attack of their six-year-old movement. According to news reports provided by The Kathmandu Post and BBC online, 142 people were killed. The Maoists, seeking to overthrow Nepal’s monarchy and establish a socialist republic, mounted attacks on a local airport, government buildings, a military barracks and armory in Mangalsen, and the district headquarters of Achham in far western Nepal. Buildings were blown up and banks looted. Gun battles between rebels and the security forces went on for many hours from midnight until well after dawn. Among the dead during the offensive were 57 out of 58 soldiers, 49 policemen, the chief district officer Mohan Singh Khatri, the district intelligence officer Lok Raj Upreti and his wife, a postman, and a local photographer. The casualties also included some rebels. In addition, many were injured. 2 March: The state of emergency was extended. 29 March: A bomb explosion destroyed a bridge in Kathmandu, wounding 27 people. 12 April: Maoist revolutionaries killed almost 90 policemen in four separate and almost simultaneous attacks in the district of Dang in western Nepal, about 190 miles west of Kathmandu. Also killed during the attacks and counter military assaults were scores of rebels. Over 300 were feared dead, including both policemen and rebels. 13 April: A land mine blast in the far western district of Bajura killed 3 people. This was believed to be the first land mine explosion in Nepal. 16 April: Maoists ambushed a police patrol and killed at least 9 policemen in the Gorkha district, about 70 miles west of Kathmandu. 18 April: Two bomb explosions shook the capital city of Kathmandu. This was a clear indication that the raging People’s War had extended its frontier from the rural fringes to urban trenches. The intensification of the confrontations between the military and Maoists has besieged the nation and claimed more than 3,500 lives since the Maoist revolution was set in motion in early 1996, and the number of casualties continues to climb everyday. Of the current total, 1,700 have been killed since the declaration of the state of emergency in November 2001 and subsequent military mobilization against the Maoists and those suspected of supporting the People’s War. Many more have been jailed. Although the number of military and police casualties have been quite small relative to innocent and rebel body counts, the Maoists have so far gained a psychological edge over the Nepali army and police forces despite their massive military disadvantage. 23 April: In response to a Maoist call for a nationwide strike, Nepal was shut down as everything came to a halt. Businesses, schools, and offices were closed across the country. 24 April: The nation remained paralyzed. The total shut down was most noticeable in the bustling twin cities of Patan and Kathmandu. In the meantime, the Bush administration asked Congress for a supplemental appropriation of $20 million in military aid for Nepal. This is in addition to sending U.S. military advisers who have been actively scouring parts of Nepal currently controlled by the Maoist revolutionaries. For the first time, the Nepali government floated bounty offers of $64,000 for the capture or murder of Maoist supremo: Baburam Bhattarai, Prachanda (Puspa Kamal Dahal), and Kiran (Mohan Vaidya). 27 April: According to the Nepal government press release, a total of 35 Maoists were murdered by its army in several clashes. 2 May: Maoists proposed to resume peace talks with the government, but the prime minister rejected the offer. 3 May: Just days ahead of Nepali Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba’s visit to the United States to plead for more aid, the government of Nepal claimed to have killed a total of 90 rebels—50 in Rolpa and 40 in Doti. 4 May: As the prime minister prepared for his eagerly awaited U.S. visit to meet with President George W. Bush, the government dramatically raised the body count of the Maoist fighters reported killed by the army on 3 May—from 90 to 396. There was no independent confirmation of this claim. 6 May: Nepal’s Supreme Court ruled that marital sex without a wife’s consent should be considered rape, along with forced sex with sex workers. Viewed as alien until a few years ago, the subject of marital rape emerged as an important social issue. This ruling nullified the current law which failed to recognize marital rape as a crime. 7 May: Nepali Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba arrived in the United States and met with President Bush to extract additional military and financial assistance to fight against what he called “Maoist terrorism in the country,” while atrocities raged on at the domestic front. According to the Associated Press, “Army helicopters fitted with night-vision devices carried out the air strikes in the remote western districts of Rolpa and Pyuthan.” Relentless aerial bombardments of the Maoist bases and camps in the western hills were reported. In the meantime, despite the lack of any independent verification, the government continued to raise, almost on a daily basis, the number of rebels its army claimed to have killed. The number stood at more than 560 since the previous Thursday. In its news report, the Associate Press mentioned that Amnesty International was gravely concerned that civilians were being killed by the Nepali army in the name of eliminating the Maoist rebels. Regarding the U.S. role in Nepal’s ongoing war, AFP reported that at least a dozen U.S. military experts had in recent weeks toured far western parts of Nepal. There was a team out there from U.S. Pacific Command to see where military assistance could be best allocated. 11 May: After a ferocious battle against waves of Maoist forces, Nepal’s army was short of men and weapons. They retreated from two positions in the western hills to regroup and brace for another major attack by the Maoists. 13 May: From the United States, Prime Minister Deuba flew to London and met with British Prime Minister Tony Blair to seek aid, including weapons and logistical training. 22 May (Parliament Disbanded): King Gyanendra dissolved the lower house of Parliament—the House of Representatives—as the majority of the representatives appeared unwilling to renew the state of emergency that the king had imposed. 23 May: The ruling Congress party suspended Prime Minister Deuba because he had asked the king to dissolve Parliament without consulting with the party. 26 May: The ruling Congress party expelled Prime Minister Deuba from the party, but his post of prime ministership was not affected due to the fact that Parliament had already been dissolved. 27 May (State of Emergency Reimposed): The king reimposed the state of emergency, thus continuing to suspend all civil or constitutional rights in the country, two days after it lapsed amid a bitter row over moves to extend it. 19 June: A two-day international conference was held in London to discuss ways to help the government of Nepal to root out the Maoist revolution raging in the country. In addition to the United Kingdom, the conference was attended by the United States, Russia, China, India, Australia, and several European countries. British Foreign Office Minister Mike O’Brien mentioned the British military aid to Nepal was boosted from $1 million to almost $10 million this year. 25 June: India offered to help Nepal to fight the Maoists. 27 June: As part of its push for privatization, the government of Nepal prepared to sell up to 49 percent of its Royal Nepal Airlines to private companies or joint ventures. A human rights group called Reporters without Borders (Reporters sans Frontières) reported that Krishna Sen, editor of the pro-Maoist newspaper Janadisha, was tortured to death by the national security forces the previous week after being taken into detention in May. 16 July: Journalists in Nepal began a boycott of all government functions. In addition, the Nepali Journalists’ Federation called for a blackout of news and pictures of the prime minister, his cabinet, and other government officials. Massive flooding and landslides resulting from the torrential monsoon rains caused enormous damage in the eastern hills, especially the Khotang district, 300 kilometers away from Kathmandu. 19 July: Maoist revolutionaries renewed their call for a resumption of dialogue with the government to end the People’s War that has been waged since 1996. 20 July: Emboldened by huge amounts of military aid from the United States and India to destroy the Maoists, the government hardened its position. It rejected the offer of peace talks from Prachanda, the Maoist leader. 23 July: The United Kingdom agreed to provide almost $5 million worth of military hardware. 13 August: It was reported that a total of 422 people had been killed and another 173 still missing after weeks of floods and landslides in Nepal. Over a quarter of a million people have been badly affected by the floods caused by torrential monsoon rains in 47 of Nepal’s 75 districts. 8 September: Hundreds of Maoist rebels attacked a remote police post in Sindhuli district, 160 kilometers southeast of Kathmandu, killing at least 48 officers. 9 September: A fierce battle occurred between security forces and Maoist rebels in the west of Nepal after two rebel attacks in as many days left more than 100 people dead. 11 September: The government lifted a nine-month-old state of emergency ahead of parliamentary elections scheduled to begin in November 2002. 16 September: Normal life was brought to a halt by a general strike called by the Maoist rebels. Two people, including a policeman, were killed in separate incidents during the day. 18 September: The Election Commission granted permission to more than 100 political parties to contest the parliamentary elections to be held in November. 27 September: Women won abortion rights as a new law was passed to decriminalize abortion and broaden women’s property rights. 3 October: Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba asked King Gyanendra to postpone the elections scheduled to be held in November by a year due to security concerns caused by the long-running Maoist insurgency. 4 October (Dismissal of Prime Minister Deuba and King’s Direct Rule): King Gyanendra unexpectedly sacked the entire cabinet headed by Sher Bahadur Deuba and assumed executive powers. In addition, the king indefinitely postponed parliamentary polls, scheduled to be held in November. 11 October: King Gyanendra appointed Lokendra Bahadur Chand—a diehard monarchist and leader of the right-wing National Democratic Party—to be Nepal’s new prime minister, who later proposed peace talks with the Maoist revolutionaries. Representatives from donor countries held talks with the government of Nepal to discuss the Maoist rebel uprising in the country. The meeting was organized by the British government to consider Nepal’s military needs to fight the rebels, including sophisticated arms and training. 12 October: A bomb blast destroyed a statue of the late King Mahendra, the father of the present monarch. 19 October: Prime Minister Chand vowed to resolve peacefully the long-running Maoist insurgency. The rebels had not responded yet to Chand’s offer to hold talks, but they earlier condemned King Gyanendra’s move to assume executive powers. 21 October: The army claimed to have killed nine Maoist rebels in clashes with the security forces in the southwestern Tarai district of Bardiya. In a separate incident, soldiers were injured in a booby trap laid by the rebels in the northwestern hill district of Kalikot. 25 October: Maoist rebels announced that they were ready for peace talks to end an increasingly deadly insurgency. 12 November: Because of a three-day general strike, locally known as a band (closure), almost everything, shops, offices, restaurants and bars, were all shut. The strike was called by the Maoist rebel movement. 15 November: Upsurge of violence in which 23 policemen died in a rebel attack on a police station at Tarkukot in the Gorkha district, about 150 kilometers west of Kathmandu. In a separate incident, at least 37 security personnel and 55 rebels were said to have died in a clash in the remote mountain town of Khalanga in the Jumla district, about 600 kilometers west of Kathmandu. 27 November: A group of Gurkha soldiers taken prisoner by the Japanese in World War II won a victory over the British government as a court ruled they were wrongly excluded from a special compensation payment. In a trenchant judgment, High Court judge Justice McCombe said the decision to exclude the Gurkhas was racist. 4 December: Prachanda, a top Maoist rebel leader, renewed a call for peace talks to resolve the long-running insurgency. 6 December: Nepal’s ousted Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba led thousands of supporters in a march through Kathmandu to protest against his dismissal by King Gyanendra, and demanded to be reinstated. 8 December: Five people were killed and more than 30 were injured when Maoist rebels blew up a bus at Karkare in the Sindhuli district, roughly 100 km east of Kathmandu. 14 December: A senior U.S. official urged Maoist rebels to stop fighting and start peace talks to end the conflict. 15 December: Tens of thousands of people demonstrated against King Gyanendra’s assumption of executive powers. The largest left-wing party, the Unified Marxist-Leninist (CPN–UML), organized the rally in what was seen as a sequel to similar demonstrations by other parties. 28 December: Suspected Maoist rebels set off a bomb in a hostel on the outskirts of Kathmandu, wounding seven people. 29 December: A general strike called by Maoist rebels paralyzed Kathmandu as most shops were closed and streets were deserted. 30 December: Nepal’s government, fighting an increasingly violent revolt against the constitutional monarchy, hinted it was prepared to release information about detained Maoist rebels as a prelude to peace talks. But the government expected the rebels to offer something in return.

2003 (Increased Political Chaos and Volatility) 3 January: Amid a widening rift with major political parties over his assumption of executive powers three months ago and the continuing conflict with Maoist rebels, King Gyanendra issued a plea for national unity to resolve the country’s on-going political crisis. 11 January: Police rescued 14 children, aged between 14 and 17. They were forced to work as bonded laborers at a weaving factory in Kathmandu; they worked as wool spinners within the dark, cold rooms of the secretly run factory. 26 January: Police Chief Krishna Mohan Shrestha was killed outright while walking near his house on the outskirts of Kathmandu. His wife and bodyguard were also gunned down, presumably by Maoist rebels. Shrestha became the head of Nepal’s armed police force when it was formed about two years ago to combat the Maoist movement. 29 January: The Maoist revolutionaries declared a cease-fire vowing to sit for renewed peace negotiations. Shortly afterwards, the Nepali government said it would also observe a suspension of hostilities. 27 February: In the High Court in London, former Gorkhas, who served with the British army, lost their fight for equal pay with British servicemen and women. 29 March: Baburam Bhattarai, the number two in the Maoist rebel hierarchy, emerged out of hiding and was designated to lead the Maoist team at the peace talks with the government. 31 March: Baburam Bhattarai shared a public forum with Prime Minister Lokendra Bahadur Chand and said the rebels were ready to sit for the talks as soon as the government created a conducive atmosphere. He also met leaders of the Nepali Congress, the Unified Marxist-Leninist party, and other parties ahead of the proposed talks. 1 April: A government negotiator said the peace talks with the Maoist camp, due to begin on Tuesday, had been delayed by two days. 4 May (Launching of the Joint People’s Movement): Five out of six national political parties with seats in the dismissed House of Representatives—the Communist Party of Nepal–Unified Marxist-Leninist, Janamorcha Nepal, Nepali Congress Party, Nepal Sadbhavana Party, and Nepal Peasants and Workers Party—joined forces, declaring to launch what they called the Joint People’s Movement against the king. Notably absent from this coalition was the right-wing, pro-Panchayat National Democratic Party led by Lokendra Bahadur Chand and Surya Bahadur Thapa. 9 May: The Joint People’s Movement began with a large parade of black flags to protest the king and his executive power. The Nepali government accepted two key Maoist demands by agreeing to free three jailed rebel leaders and limit army patrols at the end of a second round of talks aimed at stopping a seven-year revolt that had killed 7,200 people. One of the rebel negotiators told reporters that the decision would have a significant impact in terms of creating an atmosphere of confidence for talks. He also said they were ready for another round of talks with the government side to discuss their political agenda. 30 May: Ongoing protests against the king and his executive power took a new turn, demonstrating their strength and vigor. As part of the Joint People’s Movement, there were huge marches across the country, with some openly calling for the abolition of the monarchy and establishment of Nepal as a republic. The Nepali government unleashed its police forces across the nation to attack protesters, killing some and wounding many. Following these developments, Prime Minister Lokendra Bahadur Chand announced his resignation. 31 May: More protests swept Nepal as the opposition parties engaged in the joint movement kept up their pressure on the king to form a new government of national unity. They proposed Madhav Kumar Nepal, general secretary of CPN–UML, as their choice to head the new government. 4 June: In defiance of the Joint People’s Movement and its leaders’ demand and reconciliatory proposal, King Gyanendra named Surya Bahadur Thapa, an unapologetic royalist and rival leader of the right-wing National Democratic Party, to be the new prime minister of Nepal. 5 June: Less than 24 hours after the king’s announcement of Thapa’s appointment, the Joint People’s Movement rejected the king’s action, launching mass protest demonstrations throughout the nation with more calls to dismantle the institution of monarchy. Opposition party leaders vowed to step up their pressure until their demand to restore the constitution and democratic rule were met. 13 June: The joint movement continued to display its political resolve and muscle by organizing more mass demonstrations throughout the country, with protesters demanding that the king restore the parliament that was disbanded last year or form a national unity government of nominees from the country’s five main political parties. 20 June: More protest marches against the government were organized; thousands of participating demonstrators chanted anti-king slogans. A separate rally was launched in Kathmandu by a pro-Maoist group, calling for the resumption of peace talks that have been stalled since the resignation of Prime Minister Lokendra Bahadur Chand in late May. 30 June: Student protests shut down about 10,000 private schools in the country. They were closed down indefinitely, affecting nearly 1.5 million students across Nepal. Affiliated with mainstream political parties, seven student unions jointly demanded lower fees for education.